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Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Bhagavad Gita (disambiguation) and Gita (disambiguation).

The Bhagavad Gita (;^[1]Sanskrit: भगवद्गीता, IPA:[ˌbʱɐɡɐʋɐdˈɡiːtɑː], romanized:&#;bhagavad-gītā, lit.&#;'God's song'),^[a] often referred to as the Gita (IAST: gītā), is a Hindu scripture, dated to the second or first century BCE,^[7] which forms part of the epicMahabharata.

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It is a synthesis of various strands of Indian religious thought, including the Vedic concept of dharma (duty, rightful action); samkhya-based yoga and jnana (knowledge); and bhakti (devotion).^[b] It holds a unique pan-Hindu influence as the most prominent sacred text and is a central text in Vedanta and the Vaishnava Hindu tradition.

While traditionally attributed to the sage Veda Vyasa, the Gita is probably a composite work composed by multiple authors.^[11] Incorporating teachings from the Upanishads and the samkhyayoga philosophy, the Gita is set in a narrative framework of dialogue between the pandava prince Arjuna and his charioteer guide Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, at the onset of the Kurukshetra War.

Though the Gita praises the benefits of yoga in releasing man's inner essence from the bounds of desire and the wheel of rebirth, the text propagates the Brahmanic idea of living according to one's duty or dharma, in contrast to the ascetic ideal of seeking liberation by avoiding all karma.

Facing the perils of war, Arjuna hesitates to perform his duty (dharma) as a warrior. Krishna persuades him to commence in battle, arguing that while following one's dharma, one should not consider oneself to be the agent of action, but attribute all of one's actions to God (bhakti).

The Gita posits the existence of an individual self (jivatman) and the higher Godself (Krishna, Atman/Brahman) in every being;^[c] the Krishna-Arjuna dialogue has been interpreted as a metaphor for an everlasting dialogue between the two.^[d] Numerous classical and modern thinkers have written commentaries on the Gita with differing views on its essence and the relation between the individual self (jivatman) and God (Krishna) or the supreme self (Atman/Brahman).

In the Gita's Chapter XIII, verses , four pathways to self-realization are described, which later became known as the four yogas: meditation (raja yoga), insight and intuition (jnana yoga), righteous action (karma yoga), and loving devotion (bhakti yoga). This influential classification gained widespread recognition through Swami Vivekananda's teachings in the s.

The setting of the text in a battlefield has been interpreted by several modern Indian writers as an allegory for the struggles and vagaries of human life.

Etymology

The Gita in the title of the Bhagavad Gita means "song". Religious leaders and scholars interpret the word Bhagavad in several ways.

Accordingly, the title has been interpreted as "the song of God", "the word of God" by theistic schools,^[19] "the words of the Lord",^[20] "the Divine Song",^{[page&#;needed][22]} and "Celestial Song" by others.^[23]

The Sanskrit name is often written as Shrimad Bhagavad Gita or Shrimad Bhagavadgita (श्रीमद् भगवद् गीता or श्रीमद् भगवद्गीता).

The prefix shrimad (or shrimat) denotes a high degree of respect. The Bhagavad Gita is not to be confused with the Bhagavata Puran, which is one of the eighteen major Puranas dealing with the life of the Hindu God Krishna and various avatars of Vishnu.^[24]

The work is also known as the Iswara Gita, the Ananta Gita, the Hari Gita, the Vyasa Gita, or the Gita.

Dating and authorship

Dating

The text is generally dated to the second or first century BCE, though some scholars accept dates as early as the 5th century BCE.

^{[citation needed]}

According to Jeaneane Fowler, "the dating of the Gita varies considerably" and depends in part on whether one accepts it to be a part of the early versions of the Mahabharata, or a text that was inserted into the epic at a later date. The earliest "surviving" components therefore are believed to be no older than the earliest "external" references we have to the Mahabharata epic.

The Mahabharata – the world's longest poem – is itself a text that was likely written and compiled over several hundred years, one dated between " BCE or little earlier, and 2nd century CE, though some claim a few parts can be put as late as CE", states Fowler. The dating of the Gita is thus dependent on the uncertain dating of the Mahabharata.

The actual dates of composition of the Gita remain unresolved.

According to Arthur Basham, the context of the Bhagavad Gita suggests that it was composed in an era when the ethics of war were being questioned and renunciation of monastic life was becoming popular.^[27] Such an era emerged after the rise of Buddhism and Jainism in the 5th century BCE, and particularly after the semi-legendary life of Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.

Thus, the first version of the Bhagavad Gita may have been composed in or after the 3rd century BCE.^[27]

Winthrop Sargeant linguistically categorizes the Bhagavad Gita as Epic-Puranic Sanskrit, a language that succeeds Vedic Sanskrit and precedes classical Sanskrit. The text has occasional pre-classical elements of the Vedic Sanskrit language, such as aorists and the prohibitive mā instead of the expected na (not) of classical Sanskrit.

This suggests that the text was composed after the Pāṇini era, but before the long compounds of classical Sanskrit became the norm. This would date the text as transmitted by the oral tradition to the later centuries of the 1st-millennium BCE, and the first written version probably to the 2nd or 3rd century CE.^[29]

Kashi Nath Upadhyaya dates it a bit earlier, but after the rise of Buddhism, by which it was influenced.

He states that the Gita was always a part of the Mahabharata, and dating the latter suffices in dating the Gita. based on the estimated dates of Mahabharata as evidenced by exact quotes of it in the Buddhist literature by Asvaghosa (c. CE), Upadhyaya states that the Mahabharata, and therefore the Gita, must have been well known by then for a Buddhist to be quoting it.^{[note 1]} This suggests a terminus ante quem (latest date) of the Gita be sometime before the 1st century CE.

He cites similar quotes in the dharmasutra texts, the Brahma sutras, and other literature to conclude that the Bhagavad Gita was composed in the fifth or fourth-century BCE.^{[note 2]}

Authorship

In the Indian tradition, the Bhagavad Gita, as well as the epic Mahabharata of which it is a part, is attributed to the sage Vyasa,^[37] also known as Krishna Dvaipayana and as Veda-Vyasa.

A Hindu legend narrates that Vyasa composed it, and Ganesha, who broke one of his tusks, used this tusk to write down the Mahabharata along with the Bhagavad Gita.^{[39][note 3]}

Scholars consider Vyasa to be a mythical or symbolic author, in part because Vyasa is also a title or generic name for the compiler of a text, and Vyasa is also regarded by tradition as the compiler of the Vedas and the Puranas, texts dated with a time-differencd of circa two millennia.^[e]

According to Alexus McLeod, a scholar of Philosophy and Asian Studies, it is "impossible to link the Bhagavad Gita to a single author", and it may be the work of many authors.

This view is shared by the Indologist Arthur Basham, who states that there were three or more authors or compilers of Bhagavad Gita. This is evidenced by the discontinuous intermixing of philosophical verses with theistic or passionately theistic verses, according to Basham.^{[11][note 4]}

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A. B. van Buitenen, an Indologist known for his translations and scholarship on Mahabharata, finds that the Gita is so contextually and philosophically well-knit within the Mahabharata that it was not an independent text that "somehow wandered into the epic".^[42] The Gita, states van Buitenen, was conceived and developed by the Mahabharata authors to "bring to a climax and solution the dharmic dilemma of a war".^{[42][note 5]}

Vāsudeva-Krishna roots

According to Dennis Hudson, there is an overlap between Vedic and Tantric rituals within the teachings found in the Bhagavad Gita.

Dennis Hudson places the Pancaratra Agama in the last three or four centuries of 1st-millennium BCE, and proposes that both the tantric and vedic, the Agama and the Gita share the same Vāsudeva-Krishna roots.

According to Hudson, a story in this Vedic text highlights the meaning of the name Vāsudeva as the 'shining one (deva) who dwells (Vasu) in all things and in whom all things dwell', and the meaning of Vishnu to be the 'pervading actor'.

In the Bhagavad Gita, similarly, 'Krishna identified himself both with Vāsudeva, Vishnu and their meanings'.^{[note 6]} The ideas at the centre of Vedic rituals in Shatapatha Brahmana and the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita revolve around this absolute Person, the primordial genderless absolute, which is the same as the goal of Pancaratra Agama and Tantra.

Manuscripts and layout

The Bhagavad Gita manuscript is found in the sixth book of the Mahabharata manuscripts – the Bhisma-parvan.

Therein, in the third section, the Gita forms chapters 23–40, that is to The Bhagavad Gita is often preserved and studied on its own, as an independent text with its chapters renumbered from 1 to The Bhagavad Gita manuscripts exist in numerous Indic scripts.^[51] These include writing systems that are currently in use, as well as early scripts such as the now dormant Sharada script.^[51][52] Variant manuscripts of the Gita have been found on the Indian subcontinent.^[54] Unlike the enormous variations in the remaining sections of the surviving Mahabharata manuscripts, the Gita manuscripts show only minor variations.^[54]

According to Gambhirananda, the old manuscripts may have had verses, though he agrees that “ verses is the generally accepted historic standard."^[55] Gambhirananda's view is supported by a few versions of chapter of the Mahabharata.

According to Gita exegesis scholar Robert Minor, these versions state that the Gita is a text where "Kesava [Krishna] spoke slokas, Arjuna 84, Sanjaya 41, and Dhritarashtra 1". An authentic manuscript of the Gita with verses has not been found.

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Adi Shankara, in his 8th-century commentary, explicitly states that the Gita has verses, which was likely a deliberate declaration to prevent further insertions and changes to the Gita. Since Shankara's time, " verses" has been the standard benchmark for the critical edition of the Bhagavad Gita.

Structure

The Bhagavad Gita is a poem written in the Sanskrit language with 18 chapters in total.^[58] The verses^[54] are structured into several ancient Indian poetic meters, with the principal being the Anushthubh chanda. Each shloka consists of a couplet, thus the entire text consists of 1, lines.

Each shloka has two-quarter verses with exactly eight syllables. Each of these quarters is further arranged into two metrical feet of four syllables each.^{[58][note 7]} The metered verse does not rhyme.

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While the anushthubh chanda is the principal meter used, it does deploy other elements of Sanskrit prosody (which refers to one of the six Vedangas, or limbs of Vedic statues). At dramatic moments, it uses the tristubh meter found in the Vedas, where each line of the couplet has two-quarter verses with exactly eleven syllables.

Characters

Narrative

The Gita is a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna right before the start of the climactic Kurukshetra War in the Hindu epic Mahabharata.^{[note 8]} Two massive armies have gathered to destroy each other.

The Pandava prince Arjuna asks his charioteer Krishna to drive to the centre of the battlefield so that he can get a good look at both the armies and all those "so eager for war". He sees that some among his enemies are his relatives, beloved friends, and revered teachers. He does not want to fight to kill them and is thus filled with doubt and despair on the battlefield.^[65] He drops his bow, wonders if he should renounce and just leave the battlefield.

He turns to his charioteer and guide, Krishna, for advice on the rationale for war, his choices and the right thing to do. The Bhagavad Gita is the compilation of Arjuna's questions and moral dilemma and Krishna's answers and insights that elaborate on a variety of philosophical concepts.^[67]

The compiled dialogue goes far beyond the "rationale for war"; it touches on many human ethical dilemmas, philosophical issues and life's choices.

According to Flood and Martin, although the Gita is set in the context of a wartime epic, the narrative is structured to apply to all situations; it wrestles with questions about "who we are, how we should live our lives, and how should we act in the world".^[69] According to Huston Smith, it delves into questions about the "purpose of life, crisis of self-identity, human Self, human temperaments, and ways for the spiritual quest".

The Gita posits the existence of two selves in an individual,^[c] and its presentation of the Krishna-Arjuna dialogue has been interpreted as a metaphor for an eternal dialogue between the two.^[d]

Textual significance

Synthesis prioritizing dharma and bhakti

See also: Smarta tradition

The Bhagavad Gita is a synthesis of Vedic and non-Vedic traditions,^[b][f] reconciling renunciation with action by arguing that they are inseparable; while following one's dharma, one should not consider oneself to be the agent of action, but attribute all one's actions to God.

It is a Brahmanical text that uses Shramanic and Yogic terminology to propagate the Brahmanic idea of living according to one's duty or dharma, in contrast to the ascetic ideal of liberation by avoiding all karma. According to Hiltebeitel, the Bhagavad Gita is the sealing achievement of the consolidation of Hinduism, merging Bhakti traditions with Mimamsa, Vedanta, and other knowledge based traditions.

The Gita discusses and synthesizes sramana- and yoga-based renunciation, dharma-based householder life, and devotion-based theism, attempting "to forge a harmony" between these three paths.^[f] It does this in a framework addressing the question of what constitutes the virtuous path that is necessary for spiritual liberation or release from the cycles of rebirth (moksha),^[77][78] incorporating various religious traditions, including philosophical ideas from the Upanishads^[81]samkhyayoga philosophy, and bhakti, incorporating bhakti into Vedanta.

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As such, it neutralizes the tension between the Brahmanical worldorder with its caste-based social institutions that hold society together, and the search for salvation by ascetics who have left society.

Rejection of sramanic non-action

According to Gavin Flood and Charles Martin, the Gita rejects the shramanic path of non-action, emphasizing instead "the renunciation of the fruits of action". According to Gavin Flood, the teachings in the Gita differ from other Indian religions that encouraged extreme austerity and self-torture of various forms (karsayanta).

The Gita disapproves of these, stating that not only is it against tradition but against Krishna himself, because "Krishna dwells within all beings, in torturing the body the ascetic would be torturing him", states Flood. Even a monk should strive for "inner renunciation" rather than external pretensions.^[84] It further states that the dharmic householder can achieve the same goals as the renouncing monk through "inner renunciation" or "motiveless action".^{[77][note 9]} One must do the right thing because one has determined that it is right, states Gita, without craving for its fruits, without worrying about the results, loss or gain.^[86][87][88] Desires, selfishness, and the craving for fruits can distort one from spiritual living.^[87][g]

Vedanta

The Bhagavad Gita is part of the Prasthanatrayi, which also includes the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras, the foundational texts of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy.^[h]

Vaishnavism

The Gita is a revered text in the Vaishnava tradition,^[95][96][97] mostly through the Vaishnava Vedanta commentaries written on it, though the text itself is also celebrated in the Puranas, for example, the Gita Mahatmya of the Varaha Purana.^[i] While Upanishads focus more on knowledge and the identity of the self with Brahman, the Bhagavad Gita shifts the emphasis towards devotion and the worship of a personal deity, specifically Krishna.

There are alternate versions of the Bhagavad Gita (such as the one found in Kashmir), but the basic message behind these texts is not distorted.

Modern prominence

While Hinduism is known for its diversity and the synthesis derived from it, the Bhagavad Gita holds a unique pan-Hindu influence.^[j]Gerald James Larson – an Indologist and scholar of classical Hindu philosophy, states that "if there is any one text that comes near to embodying the totality of what it is to be a Hindu, it would be the Bhagavad Gita."

Yet, according to Robinson, "it is increasingly recognized by scholars that the extraordinary prominence of the Bhagavad Gita is a feature of modernity despite disagreement over the date at which it became dominant." According to Eric Sharpe, this change started in the s, and became prominent after According to Arvind Sharma, the Bhagavad Gita was always an important scripture but became prominent in the s.

With its translation and study by Western scholars beginning in the early 18th century, the Bhagavad Gita gained a growing appreciation and popularity in the West.^{[web 1]} Novel interpretations of the Gita, along with apologetics on it, have been a part of the modern era revisionism and renewal movements within Hinduism.

According to Ronald Neufeldt, it was the Theosophical Society that dedicated much attention and energy to the allegorical interpretation of the Gita, along with religious texts from around the world, after and given H. P. Blavatsky, Subba Rao and Anne Besant writings.

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Their attempt was to present their "universalist religion." These late 19th-century theosophical writings called the Gita a "path of true spirituality" and "teaching nothing more than the basis of every system of philosophy and scientific endeavour", triumphing over other "Samkhya paths" of Hinduism that "have degenerated into superstition and demoralized India by leading people away from practical action".

Hindu reform movements

Main article: Hindu reform movements

Neo-Hindus and Hindu nationalists have celebrated the Bhagavad Gita as containing the essence of Hinduism and taking the Gita's emphasis on duty and action as a clue for their activism for Indian nationalism and Chandra Chatterjee (–) challenged orientalist literature on Hinduism and offered his interpretations of the Gita, states Ajit Gangadhar Tilak (–) interpreted the karma yoga teachings in Gita as a "doctrine of liberation" taught by Hinduism, while Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (–) stated that the Bhagavad Gita teaches a universalist religion and the "essence of Hinduism" along with the "essence of all religions", rather than a private religion.

Vivekananda's (–) works contained numerous references to the Gita, such as his lectures on the four yogas – Bhakti, Jnana, Karma, and Raja.

Through the message of the Gita, Vivekananda sought to energise the people of India to reclaim their dormant but strong ndo (–) saw the Bhagavad Gita as a "scripture of the future religion" and suggested that Hinduism had acquired a much wider relevance through the Gita.

Neo-Vedanta and yoga

Main articles: Neo-Vedanta and Three Yogas

While the Upanishads refer to yoga as yoking or restraining the mind, the topic of BG chapter 6, the Bhagavad Gita introduces "the famous three kinds of yoga: 'knowledge' (jnana), 'action' (karma), and 'love' (bhakti).

BG XIII verses famously mention four kinds of yoga, or ways of seeing the self, adding meditation to the three yogas. Yet, the practice of dhyana (meditation), is a part of all three classical paths in Hinduism. Knowledge or insight, discerning the true self (purusha) from matter and material desires (prakriti), is the true aim of classical yoga, in which meditation and insight cannot be separated.

Furthermore, the Gita "rejects the Buddhist and Jain path of non-action, emphasizing instead renunciation of the fruits of action" and devotion to Krishna.

The systematic presentation of Hindu monotheism as divided into these four paths or "Yogas" is modern, advocated by Swami Vivekananda from the s in his books on Jnana Yoga,Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Raja Yoga, emphasizing Raja Yoga as the crowning achievement of yoga.

Vivekananda, who was strongly inspired by the Gita, viewed all spiritual paths as equal. Yet, Vivekananda also noted that "The reconciliation of the different paths of Dharma, and work without desire or attachment — these are the two special characteristics of the Gita."^[] Similarly, Cornille states that the Gita asserts that the path of Bhakti (devotion) is the foremost and the easiest of them all.

According to Huston Smith, a notable neo-Vedantin, referring to BG XIII verse 23–25, the Gita mentions four ways to see the self, based on the Samkhya-premise that people are born with different temperaments and tendencies (guṇa).

Some individuals are more reflective and intellectual, some are effective and engaged by their emotions, some are action-driven, yet others favour experimentation and exploring what works. According to Smith, BG XIII verse lists four different spiritual paths for each personality type respectively: the path of knowledge (jnana yoga), the path of devotion (bhakti yoga), the path of action (karma yoga), and the path of meditation (raja yoga).

Medieval commentators argued which path had priority.

According to Robinson, modern commentators have interpreted the text as refraining from insisting on one right marga (path) to spirituality.

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According to Upadhyaya, the Gita states that none of these paths to spiritual realization is "intrinsically superior or inferior", rather they "converge in one and lead to the same goal".

Chapters and content

The Bhagavad Gita contains 18 chapters and verses found in the Bhishma Parva of the epic Mahabharata.^{[][web 2]} Because of differences in recensions, the verses of the Gita may be numbered in the full text of the Mahabharata as chapters –42 or as chapters –^{[web 3]} The number of verses in each chapter vary in some manuscripts of the Gita discovered on the Indian subcontinent.

However, variant readings are relatively few in contrast to the numerous versions of the Mahabharata it is found embedded in.^[54]

The original Bhagavad Gita has no chapter titles. Some Sanskrit editions that separate the Gita from the epic as an independent text, as well as translators, however, add chapter titles.^{[web 3]} For example, Swami Chidbhavananda describes each of the eighteen chapters as a separate yoga because each chapter, like yoga, "trains the body and the mind".

He labels the first chapter "Arjuna Vishada Yogam" or the "Yoga of Arjuna's Dejection".^[] Sir Edwin Arnold titled this chapter in his translation as "The Distress of Arjuna".^{[20][note 10]}

The chapters are:

Chapter 1: Arjuna Vishada Yoga (46 verses)

Main article: Arjuna Vishada-yoga

Translators have variously titled the first chapter as Arjuna Vishada-yoga, Prathama Adhyaya, The Distress of Arjuna, The War Within, or Arjuna's Sorrow.^[20] The Bhagavad Gita is opened by setting the stage of the Kurukshetra battlefield.

Two massive armies representing different loyalties and ideologies face a catastrophic war. With Arjuna is Krishna, not as a participant in the war, but only as his charioteer and counsel. Arjuna requests Krishna to move the chariot between the two armies so he can see those "eager for this war". He sees family and friends on the enemy side.

Arjuna is distressed and in sorrow.

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The issue is stated Arvind Sharma, "Is it morally proper to kill?" This and other moral dilemmas in the first chapter are set in a context where the Hindu epic and Krishna have already extolled ahimsa (non-violence) to be the highest and divine virtue of a human being. The war feels evil to Arjuna and he questions the morality of war.

He wonders if it is noble to renounce and leave before the violence starts, or should he fight, and why.

Chapter 2: Sankhya Yoga (72 verses)

Main article: Samkhya Yoga (Bhagavad Gita)

Translators title the chapter as Sankhya Yoga, The Book of Doctrines, Self-Realization, or The Yoga of Knowledge (and Philosophy).^[20] The second chapter begins the philosophical discussions and teachings found in the Gita. The warrior Arjuna whose past had focused on learning the skills of his profession now faces a war he has doubts about.

Filled with introspection and questions about the meaning and purpose of life, he asks Krishna about the nature of life, Self, death, afterlife and whether there is a deeper meaning and reality. Krishna teaches Arjuna about the eternal nature of the soul (atman) and the temporary nature of the body, advising him to perform his warrior duty with detachment and without grief.

The chapter summarizes the Hindu idea of rebirth, samsara, eternal Self in each person (Self), universal Self-present in everyone, various types of yoga, divinity within, the nature of knowledge of the Self and other concepts. The ideas and concepts in the second chapter reflect the framework of the Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hindu philosophy.

This chapter is an overview of the remaining sixteen chapters of the Bhagavad a Gandhi memorized the last 19 verses of the second chapter, considering them as his companion in his non-violent movement for social justice during colonial rule.

Chapter 3: Karma Yoga (43 verses)